Persecution of Copts

Copts, who belong primarily to the Coptic Orthodox Church and make up an estimated 10% of Egypt's population, are the country's largest religious minority. Throughout modern Egyptian history, Copts have reported discrimination, sectarian violence, and social marginalization. Human Rights Watch has documented increasing religious intolerance and attacks against Christian communities in recent decades and has criticized the Egyptian government for repeatedly failing to adequately investigate or prosecute such incidents. Some commentators and religious leaders have argued that anti-Christian incidents may be influenced by political or socio-economic tensions rather than religious motives alone.

Historically, Christians in Egypt faced systematic Roman persecution beginning with the Edict of Decius and intensifying under Diocletian, a period remembered in the Coptic calendar as the "Era of the Martyrs." Following the Muslim conquest of Egypt (639–641 CE), Christians were classified as dhimmi, a protected but subordinate legal status. Discriminatory practices increased over time, including under the Fatimid ruler Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, who restricted Christian religious practice and, according to Coptologist Emile Maher Ishaq, prohibited use of the Coptic language under threat of tongue removal. Widespread violence against Copts and Jews occurred in the 14th century, including riots in 1321 and mob coercion in 1354; some sources estimate up to 300,000 Christians may have been killed during the Mamluk era. Under Ottoman rule, legal restrictions on church construction were codified in the 1856 Hamayouni Decree, and Arabist Edward William Lane documented the 1820s execution of a woman for apostasy after her conversion to Christianity was discovered.

In the 20th century, the assassination of Coptic Prime Minister Boutros Ghali in 1910 heightened sectarian tension, though the Wafd Party later promoted Muslim-Christian unity. Under Gamal Abdel Nasser, mobs mobilized by the Muslim Brotherhood attacked Copts and destroyed churches. Anwar Sadat's 1980 constitutional amendment declaring Islam the state religion and basis of legislation, and a 1981 crackdown placing the Coptic patriarch under house arrest at the Monastery of Saint Pishoy, marked further tension.

Contemporary concerns include a documented gap between legal protections and their enforcement: a 2016 church-construction law simplified approval processes, but security authorities have reportedly obstructed construction in practice, and Egypt does not officially recognize conversions from Islam to Christianity. Critics have raised concerns about informal "reconciliation councils" that reportedly favor Muslim parties, alleged police inaction, and limited Christian representation in state institutions and sports. Human rights organizations and advocacy groups have also raised concerns about abductions and forced conversions of Christian women and girls; the Egyptian NGO Association of Victims of Abduction and Forced Disappearance stated approximately 550 Christian girls were abducted between 2011 and March 2014. Reports from 2017–2018 suggested such incidents may have increased with Salafist networks under President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi. Some recent reports indicate improvement in areas such as church construction, and Open Doors' World Watch List ranking for Egypt shifted from 25th in 2013 to 40th by 2025, indicating a measured decline in reported persecution, though social discrimination and bureaucratic obstacles remain.